State of the Environment

2001

Biodiversity Theme Report

Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report)
Prepared by: Dr Jann Williams, RMIT University, Authors
Published by CSIRO on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2001
ISBN 0 643 06749 3

Glossary

adaptation
a particular part of the anatomy, a physiological process, or a behaviour pattern that improves an organism's chances to survive and reproduce
adequacy
(in the context of the National Reserve System) the ability of the reserve to maintain the ecological viability and integrity of populations, species and communities
aerosol
a suspension of particles, other than water or ice, in the atmosphere and ranging in size from approximately 10 to 13 m in radius; may be either natural or caused by human activity and most of the latter are usually considered to be pollutants
agricultural land
any land on which crops or pastures are cultivated or domestic stock are grazed
algal blooms
sudden proliferation of microscopic algae in water bodies, stimulated by the input of nutrients such as phosphates
allele
a form of a gene, where multiple such forms occur
anthropogenic
of human origin or human induced; can be used in the context of emissions that are produced as a result of human activities
aquaculture
the commercial growing of marine (mariculture) or freshwater animals and plants in water
arid zone
areas receiving less than 250 mm of annual rainfall in the south of Australia and 350 mm (or sometimes higher) in the north
atmosphere
composite layer of colourless, odourless gases, known as air, surrounding the Earth; it shows distinct vertical zonation
ballast water
water carried in tanks to maintain stability when a ship is lightly loaded; it is normally discharged to the sea when the ship is loaded with cargo
baseline
behaviour of a system that has not been affected by human influence (for example river flow with no dams; pre-industrial levels of greenhouse gases). In most cases, the true baseline for natural systems cannot be defined or measured, so a particular condition at an agreed time is used as a substitute baseline, see benchmark, targets
baseline information
information relating to a specific time or defined area of land or water, from which trends or changes can be assessed
benchmark
the value for an indicator that has some defined environmental significance (or threshold) in the functioning of the natural system. An example is the concentration of pollutants that can be tolerated without damaging health. Whereas targets have a basis in policy and reflect human values, benchmarks are scientifically determined, see targets
benthic
associated with aquatic or sea floor
biodiversity
the variability among living organisms from all sources (including terrestrial, marine and other ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part) and includes: diversity within species and between species; and diversity of ecosystems
biogeochemical cycles
the movement of chemical elements between organisms and non-living compartments of atmosphere, aquatic systems and soils
biological control
controlling a pest by the use of its natural enemies
biological productivity
the intensity of life form production in an ecosystem or part of an ecosystem
biomass
the quantity of organic matter within an ecosystem (usually expressed as dry weight for unit area or volume)
bioregion
a territory defined by a combination of biological, social and geographical criteria rather than by geopolitical considerations; generally, a system of related, interconnected ecosystems
biota
all of the organisms at a particular locality
bushfire
a term used to describe almost any form of fire burning out of control whether the fire was planned or unplanned
bycatch
species taken incidentally in a fishery where other species are the target; may be of lesser value than the target species and are often discarded
catchment
the area determined by topographic features within which rainfall will contribute to run-off at a particular point under consideration
clearing
removing vegetation, particularly trees and shrubs, from a landscape, often with the intention of replacing it with plants regarded to be more directly useful to humans
climate
the synthesis of the day-to-day weather conditions in a given area; the actual climate is characterised by long-term statistics of the state of the atmosphere in an area
climate change
under the terms of the UNFCCC, the term means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is, in addition to natural climate variability, observed over comparable time periods
climate variability
the natural year-to-year and season-to-season variation of the climate system
community participation
procedures whereby members of a community participate directly in decision-making about developments that may affect the community
comprehensiveness
the degree to which the full range of ecological communities and their biodiversity are incorporated within reserves
Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative Reserve System (CAR)
a reserve system to conserve all native forest types as well as the plants and animals that depend on them: comprehensive, the full range of forest communities recognised by an agreed national scientific classification at appropriate hierarchical levels; adequate, the maintenance of the ecological viability and integrity of populations, species and communities; representative, those sample areas of the forest that are selected for inclusion in reserves which should reasonably reflect the biodiversity of the communities
Comprehensive Regional Assessment (CRA)
a joint assessment of all forest values by the Commonwealth and state - environmental, heritage, economic and social - leading to the establishment of a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system, agreements on forest management, and the signing of an RFA
condition indicator
(otherwise referred to as an indicator of state); something that describes the quality of the environment and the quality and quantity of natural resources; highlights changes in environmental conditions over time
conservation
the protection, maintenance, management, sustainable use, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment
cryptogram
a plant that has no true flowers or seeds
discharge
the volume of water that flows through a cross-section of a stream
domestic animals
animals directly managed by humans, see feral animal
drainage
the interception and/or removal of surface and/or ground water from a given area by natural or artificial means
dryland salinity
areas where soil salinity levels are high enough to affect plant growth; occurs as a result of natural soil forming process (primary salinity) or in disturbed landscapes through clearing or other activities that interfere with the water and salinity balance and lead to shallow water tables; hydrological response to the replacement of deep-rooted perennial native vegetation with shallow rooted annuals which use less water. As a consequence, more rainfall enters the ground water, causing water tables to rise; where these rise to within 1 to 2 m of the soil surface, salinisation occurs as a result of evapotranspiration and direct evaporation. This can result in both stream and soil salinity
ecological footprint
the ecological effect of cities, including the direct local effects and the indirect regional and global effects due to the resources they use and the wastes they produce
ecological processes
processes that have an essential part in maintaining ecosystems; four fundamental ecological processes are the cycling of water, the cycling of nutrients, the flow of energy and biodiversity
ecological sustainability
the capacity of ecosystems to maintain their essential processes and functions and to retain their biodiversity without impoverishment
ecologically sustainable development (ESD)
using, conserving and enhancing the community's resources so that ecological processes, on which life depends, are maintained and the total quality of life - now and in the future - can be increased (for the ESD core objectives and guiding principles, see COAG 1992)
ecology
the scientific study of living organisms and their relationships to one another and their environment
ecosystem
a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit
ecosystem integrity
the degree to which the fundamental ecological processes (e.g. water and nutrient cycling, the flow of energy and biodiversity) are maintained
ecosystem services
the role played by organisms in creating a healthy environment for human beings, from production of oxygen to soil formation and maintenance of water quality
ecotourism
nature-based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable
El Nio
an extensive warming of the central and eastern Pacific that leads to a major shift in weather patterns across the Pacific. In Australia (particularly eastern Australia), El Nio events are associated with an increased probability of drier conditions, see ENSO
emissions
substances such as gases, or particles discharged into the atmosphere as a result of natural processes or human activities, including those from chimneys, elevated point sources and tailpipes of motor vehicles
endangered species
a species which is in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue; included are species whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that the species are deemed to be in danger of extinction
endemic
native to a particular area and found nowhere else
ENSO (El Nio-Southern Oscillation)
a suite of events that occur at the time of an El Nio; at one extreme of the cycle, when the central Pacific Ocean is warm and the atmospheric pressure over Australia is relatively high, the ENSO causes drought conditions over eastern Australia
environment includes:
(a) ecosystems and their constituent parts, including people and communities;
(b) natural and physical resources;
(c) the qualities and characteristics of locations, places and areas; and
(d) the social, economic and cultural aspects mentioned in (a), (b) or (c)
environmental indicators
measures of physical, chemical, biological, social, cultural or economic factors which best represent the key elements of complex ecosystems or environmental issues
environmental management
effective and active measures taken for the protection, conservation and presentation of the environment, heritage and natural resources for which a government, organisation or individual is responsible
environmental stress
the damaging influence of human activities on the environment (e.g. through pollution or consumption of natural resources) or that generated by natural events such as storms or droughts
ephemeral
organisms that have a short life-span, or a watercourse that does not flow all the time
estuary
area of an inlet or river mouth that is influenced by the tides and also by fresh water from the land; area where fresh and salt waters mix
eutrophication
process by which waters become enriched with nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, which stimulate the growth of aquatic flora and/or fauna
ex situ conservation
conservation of species outside their natural habitat (e.g. in zoos, botanical gardens and seed banks)
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
a concept recognised under the United Nations Law of the Sea, whereby coastal states assume jurisdiction over the exploration and exploitation of marine resources extending 200 nautical miles (about 370 km) from the shore or baseline
exotic species
a species occurring in an area outside its historically known natural range as a result of intentional or accidental dispersal by human activities (including exotic organisms, GMOs and translocated species)
family
in the hierarchical classification of organisms, a group of species of common descent higher than the genus and lower than the order, hence a group of genera
fauna
the entire animal life of a site or region, see flora
feral animal
an animal that has reverted to a wild state from domestication (e.g. feral cats, pigs, donkeys)
fire regime
the pattern of fires at a location; includes the frequency, intensity and seasonality of the fires
flora
the entire plant life of a site or region, see fauna
forest estate
all forests growing on public or private lands
freehold tenure
land owned privately, see leasehold
gaming
where landowners and land managers may remove or thin vegetation on their property in a manner that allows the vegetation to remain within a certain vegetation class, as broadly defined at a regional level. For example, individual trees, small stands of trees and associated understorey vegetation may be logged and removed from a forest without changing the structure of the overstorey vegetation such that it would fail to meet the agreed definition of 'forest'
gene
the functional unit of heredity; that part of the DNA molecule that encodes a single enzyme or structural protein unit
genetic material
any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin that contains functional units of heredity
genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
organisms whose genetic make up has been altered by the insertion or deletion of small fragments of DNA in order to create or enhance desirable characteristics from the same or another species
genome
all the genes of a particular organism or species
geographic information system (GIS)
a package of computer programs specifically designed to deal with data that are spatially related; a set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, manipulating, analysing and displaying mapped data from the real world
globalisation
the economic and social process whereby local markets and cultures are increasingly dominated by global markets and culture
Gondwana
the southern supercontinent that started to break up about 150 million years ago, consisting of what are now South America, Africa, Antarctica, Arabia, Australia, India, Madagascar and New Zealand
grassland
areas dominated by grasses and with few or no trees
Great Artesian Basin
an enormous store of ground water underlying much of the drier regions of eastern Australia
ground water
water occurring below the ground surface
habitat
The biophysical medium or media (a) occupied (continuously, periodically or occasionally) by an organism or group of organisms; or (b) once occupied (continuously, periodically or occasionally) by an organism, or group of organisms, and into which organisms of that kind have the potential to be reintroduced
heathland
vegetation dominated by small shrubs with small hard leaves
hectare (ha)
10 000 square metres
herbivore
an animal that consumes plants
heritage
those places, objects and Indigenous languages that have aesthetic, historic, scientific or social significance or other special value for future generations as well as for the community today
hummock grass
spinifex grasses usually growing together as large rounded 'hummocks' which can be several metres across, often forming rings with a central dead or decaying patch; hummock grasslands are largely confined to the arid interior and to infertile soils
hybrid
the offspring of two animals or plants of different varieties, species or genera
hydrocarbon
an organic molecule containing hydrogen and carbon; the major components of petroleum
indicator species
a species whose presence or absence is indicative of a particular habitat, community or set of environmental conditions
Indigenous people
the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia
in situ
the location of biological, physical or material culture objects in their original physical and cultural context
in situ conservation
conserving species within their natural habitat
intellectual property
intellectual property represents the property of your mind or intellect. This includes information people have as part of their cultural heritage (e.g. knowledge about bush foods or oral history)
intertidal
between the levels of low and high tide; the intertidal zone is often called the littoral zone in Australia
introduced species
see exotic species
invertebrate
an animal without a backbone composed of vertebrae; examples include insects, worms, snails, mussels, prawns and cuttlefish, see vertebrate
land cover
the physical state of the land surface, including vegetation, soil, rock and human-made structures
Landcare
any policy, strategy or practice furthering sustainable land management. Landcare is practised by community groups, formal support services, advisers, land managers and individuals. The community component of Landcare aims to encourage community groups and landholders to identify and solve the soil, water, vegetation, management and nature conservation problems in their area. Grants help groups with planning, education and training, resource inventories and monitoring
leasehold
land owned by governments on behalf of the people they represent but leased to specified people or organisations for a specific purpose; about 50% of Australia, mostly in the drier regions, comes under some form of leasehold; governments retain a variety of controls over how leasehold land is used
littoral
of, or pertaining to, a shore, especially a sea shore; littoral zone - the specific zone of the sea floor lying between high and low tide levels (intertidal)
mallee
small multi-stemmed eucalypts that often dominate semi-arid and arid areas
mangrove
a plant (belonging to any of a wide range of species, mainly trees and shrubs) that grows in sediment regularly inundated by seawater; a community (forest, woodland, shrubland) of such plants
monitoring
routine counting, testing or measuring of environmental factors or biota to determine their status or condition
monoculture
the cultivation of a single species, usually a single crop on land
National Forest Policy Statement (NFPS)
a joint Commonwealth, state and territory government response which outlines agreed objectives and policies for Australia's public and private forests
native forest
any local indigenous forest community containing the full complement of native species and habitats normally associated with that community, or having the potential to develop these characteristics
native (indigenous species)
species that are native to (i.e. occur naturally) in a region, see exotic species
native vegetation
any local indigenous plant community containing throughout its growth the complement of native species and habitats normally associated with that vegetation type or having the potential to develop these characteristics. It includes vegetation with these characteristics that has been regenerated with human assistance following disturbance. It excludes plantations and vegetation that has been established for commercial purposes
natural environment
an environment that is not the result of human activity or intervention
objectives
broad policy goals, which are not precisely quantified (e.g. sustainable resource management)
old growth
ecologically mature vegetation that has been subject to negligible levels of disturbance such as logging, roading and clearing
organochlorine
a hydrocarbon compound containing chlorine. Includes many pesticides and industrial chemicals
ozone
a gas with molecules comprising three atoms of oxygen; in the stratosphere it occurs naturally and provides a protective layer shielding the earth from ultraviolet radiation; in the troposphere, it is usually formed from anthropogenic emissions and is a major component of photochemical smog; ozone is also a greenhouse gas
pathogen
a disease-causing agent
perennial
plants that live for more than one year
periurban
low density housing and road development on the periphery of urban areas, still retaining small areas of rural land within networks of suburban building
pest
an animal, or sometimes a plant, occurring where it is not wanted by humans, see weed
phytoplankton
small plants that are suspended in water and free-drifting
plantations
intensively managed stands of either native or exotic trees species, created by the regular placement of seedlings or seed
point source pollution
pollution from an easily discernible, single source such as a factory
pollution
the direct or indirect alteration of the physical, thermal, biological or radioactive properties of any part of the environment in such a way as to create a hazard or potential hazard to the health, safety or welfare of any living species
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
a group of chlorinated organic compounds that are non-corroding and resistant to heat and biological degradation; used as insulation in electrical equipment; can accumulate in some species and disrupt reproduction
population
a group of individuals of the same species, forming a breeding unit and sharing a habitat
precautionary principle
where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation
precipitation
any form or all forms of liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface; includes drizzle, rain, snow, snow pellets, ice crystals, ice pellets and hail
preservation
maintaining the physical material of places or objects in their existing state and retarding deterioration
pressure indicators
measures that can be used to describe both positive and negative pressures on the environment, including the quality and quantity of natural resources; such pressures can be caused by human inaction as well as action
productivity (biological)
the rate of accumulation of organic material in an ecosystem
protected area
a protected area is defined in Article 2 of the International Convention on biodiversity as a 'geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives'
protocol
a formal arrangement defining procedures
rainforest
a closed forest in areas of high precipitation with a large diversity of species forming a deep, densely interlacing canopy in which vines and ferns are often present
rangelands
areas of native grasslands, shrublands and woodlands that cover a large proportion of the arid and semi-arid regions, and also include tropical savanna woodlands; regular cropping is not practised and the predominant agricultural use, if any, is grazing of sheep and cattle on native vegetation
recharge
the action by which water is added to a rock layer either naturally or artificially
Regional Forest Agreement (RFA)
an agreement about the long-term management and use of forests in a particular region between the Commonwealth and a state government. Its purpose is to reduce uncertainty, duplication and fragmentation in government decision-making by producing a durable agreement on the management and use of forests
regrowth
native vegetation containing a substantial proportion of individuals that are in the younger growth phase and are actively growing in height and diameter. Regrowth vegetation may contain scattered individuals or small occurrences of ecologically mature, or old growth vegetation
representativeness
the extent to which areas selected are capable of reflecting the known biodiversity and ecological patterns and processes of the ecological community or ecosystem concerned (in the context of the National Reserves System)
reserves
areas such as National Parks and nature reserves which are subject to an established degree of protection from disturbance
response indicator
an indicator that shows the extent to which society is responding to environmental changes and concerns; includes changes in attitude and individual and collective actions aimed at mitigating, adapting to or reversing negative effects on the environment and reversing environmental damage already caused; also includes actions to improve the preservation and conservation of the environment
run-off
the portion of precipitation not immediately absorbed into or detained upon the soil and which thus becomes a surface flow
saltmarsh
saltwater wetland occupied mainly by herbs and dwarf shrubs, characteristically able to tolerate extremes of environmental conditions, notably waterlogging and salinity
savanna
a vegetation type with scattered trees over a grassland, usually found in subtropical areas
seagrass
flowering plant adapted to living wholly submerged in sea water; not true grasses, but many have a grass-like form
seaweed
macroalgae (not flowering plants) occurring in the sea; typical examples are kelps, Neptune's necklace and sea lettuce
sediment
solid material settled from suspension in the water; solid material, both mineral and organic, that is in suspension, is being transported, or has been moved from its site of origin by water, air or ice and has come to rest on the land or sea floor
seed banks
the seed naturally available at a site; most of it is stored in the soil, but some may be in protective fruits such as banksia 'cones'
semi-arid lands
lands where rainfall is so low and unreliable that crops cannot be grown with any reliability, see arid zone
shrubland
an area dominated by short, multi-stemmed plants; a typical example is the chenopod shrublands but sometimes the 'mallee' is classified as a shrubland
siltation
deposition of sediments from water in channels and harbours etc.
sinks
Processes or places that remove or store gases, solutes or solids in accumulating parts of the environment
species
a group of plants, animals or microorganisms that have a high degree of similarity and generally can interbreed only among themselves to produce fertile offspring, so that they maintain their 'separateness' from other such groups
stakeholders
groups, individuals or organisations who may be affected by a development proposal, whether or not their stake in the outcome is explicit
State of the Environment reporting
a process that provides a scientific assessment of environmental conditions, focusing on the effects of human activities, their significance for the environment and societal responses to the identified trends
stock (in fisheries)
a group of individuals of a species that can be regarded as an entity for management or assessment purposes; commonly a distinct local population; some species form a single stock, others several distinct stocks
suspended solids
any solid substance present in water in an undissolved state, usually contributing directly to turbidity, see sediment
sustainability indicators
selected and/or aggregated indicators for evaluating specific ESD (ecologically sustainable development) goals
sustainable
referring to an activity that is able to be carried out without damaging the long-term health and integrity of natural and cultural environments
targets
specified levels or ranges of measurable parameters that decision-makers have agreed they will try to achieve; targets are policy tools, but they may have a scientific base (e.g. Australia's commitment at Kyoto to restrict greenhouse gas emissions to 108% of 1990 levels by 2014); targets may be associated with one or many indicators, see benchmark
taxon (pl. taxa)
the named classification unit to which individuals or sets of species are assigned, such as species, genus and order
threatened
a species or community that is vulnerable, endangered or presumed extinct
threatening process
a process that threatens, or may threaten, the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of a native species or ecological community
trend
a general direction or tendency; an indication of change (or its absence) in a property or condition
ultraviolet (UV) radiation
electromagnetic radiation of higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths than visible light; ultraviolet radiation is divided into three ranges: UV-A (320-400 nm), UV-B (280-320 nm) and UV-C (40-290 nm)
vagrant
a migratory bird found outside the normal range of its species, sometimes as a result of being lost during a storm
value adding
an economic term which describes how a raw product is processed into a product which is of more value than the material in its raw state; in the forest and wood industry context, examples of this include the kiln-drying of sawn timber, and the manufacturing of wood veneers
vascular plants
a grouping of plants that includes ferns, the gymnosperms (e.g. pines) and flowering plants
vertebrate
an animal with a backbone composed of vertebrae (e.g. mammals, fishes, frogs, amphibians, reptiles and birds), see invertebrate
vulnerable species
species which may soon move into the 'endangered' category if causal factors affecting their numbers continue. Included are species of which all, or most, populations are decreasing because of overexploitation, extensive destruction of habitat; species which are seriously depleted; under threat from severe adverse factors throughout their range; and species with low or localised populations and dependent upon a limited habitat which would be vulnerable to further threats
waterlogging
the saturation of soils with water; often associated with insufficient oxygen for good plant growth
weather
the day-to-day changing atmospheric conditions, which in synthesis constitute the climate of a region
weed
a plant species growing where it is not wanted by humans
wet sclerophyll
a type of eucalypt forest found in high rainfall (more than 1000 mm per year) areas; sometimes called 'tall-open forests'
wetland
areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres
woodchips
forest product created by processing timber and residues; most commonly used in wood panels, pulp and paper making
woodland
an area with scattered trees where the portion of the land surface covered by the crowns is more than 30% (open woodland) but less than 60% (forest)
woody weeds
shrubby plants (both native and exotic) that have increased in numbers to be a problem for pastoralists in parts of the arid and semi-arid zones
World Heritage
a term applied to sites of outstanding universal natural or cultural significance which are included on the World Heritage List